Learn Kubernetes From A Devops Guru (Kubernetes + Docker) Free Download UPDATED

byHazel Hicese -
0

Learn Kubernetes From A Devops Guru (Kubernetes + Docker) Free Download

Family unit of Unix-like operating systems

Linux
Tux the penguin

Tux the penguin, mascot of Linux[i]

Programmer Customs contributors
Linus Torvalds
Written in C, assembly languages, and others
Os family unit Unix-like
Working state Current
Source model Open source
Initial release September 17, 1991; 30 years ago  (1991-09-17)
Repository git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/torvalds/linux.git/
Marketing target Cloud computing, embedded devices, mainframe computers, mobile devices, personal computers, servers, supercomputers
Available in Multilingual
Platforms Blastoff, ARC, ARM, C6x, C-Sky, H8/300, Hexagon, IA-64, m68k, Microblaze, MIPS, NDS32, Nios Two, OpenRISC, PA-RISC, PowerPC, RISC-V, s390, SuperH, SPARC, Unicore32, x86, Xtensa
Kernel type Monolithic
Userland GNU[a], BusyBox[b]
Default
user interface
  • Unix shell (CLI)
  • Most distributions include a desktop environment (GUI)
License GPLv2[ix] and others (the name "Linux" is a trademark[c])
Official website world wide web.kernel.org
Articles in the serial
Linux kernel
Linux distribution

Linux ( LEE-nuuks or LIN-uuks)[11] is a family of open-source Unix-like operating systems based on the Linux kernel,[12] an operating system kernel beginning released on September 17, 1991, by Linus Torvalds.[13] [14] [fifteen] Linux is typically packaged in a Linux distribution.

Distributions include the Linux kernel and supporting system software and libraries, many of which are provided by the GNU Project. Many Linux distributions use the discussion "Linux" in their name, but the Free Software Foundation uses the name "GNU/Linux" to emphasize the importance of GNU software, causing some controversy.[16] [17]

Popular Linux distributions[18] [nineteen] [twenty] include Debian, Fedora Linux, and Ubuntu. Commercial distributions include Ruby-red Hat Enterprise Linux and SUSE Linux Enterprise. Desktop Linux distributions include a windowing system such as X11 or Wayland, and a desktop surroundings such equally GNOME or KDE Plasma. Distributions intended for servers may omit graphics birthday, or include a solution stack such equally LAMP. Because Linux is freely redistributable, anyone may create a distribution for any purpose.[21]

Linux was originally developed for personal computers based on the Intel x86 architecture, but has since been ported to more platforms than any other operating system.[22] Because of the dominance of the Linux-based Android on smartphones, Linux likewise has the largest installed base of all general-purpose operating systems.[23] [24] [25] [26] Although Linux is used by merely around 2.iii percent of desktop computers,[27] [28] the Chromebook, which runs the Linux kernel-based Chrome OS, dominates the United states G–12 education market and represents about 20 percent of sub-$300 notebook sales in the United states of america.[29] Linux is the leading operating system on servers (over 96.four% of the top 1 meg web servers' operating systems are Linux),[xxx] leads other big iron systems such as mainframe computers, and is the but OS used on TOP500 supercomputers (since Nov 2017, having gradually eliminated all competitors).[31] [32] [33]

Linux also runs on embedded systems, i.e. devices whose operating system is typically built into the firmware and is highly tailored to the system. This includes routers, automation controls, smart home technology, televisions (Samsung and LG Smart TVs use Tizen and WebOS, respectively),[34] [35] [36] automobiles (for example, Tesla, Audi, Mercedes-Benz, Hyundai, and Toyota all rely on Linux),[37] digital video recorders, video game consoles, and smartwatches.[38] The Falcon ix's and the Dragon 2'southward avionics utilise a customized version of Linux.[39]

Linux is one of the about prominent examples of complimentary and open up-source software collaboration. The source lawmaking may be used, modified and distributed commercially or non-commercially by anyone under the terms of its respective licenses, such every bit the GNU General Public License.[21]

History [edit]

Precursors [edit]

The Unix operating system was conceived and implemented in 1969, at AT&T's Bell Labs, in the United States by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Douglas McIlroy, and Joe Ossanna.[40] First released in 1971, Unix was written entirely in associates language, as was common practice at the time. In 1973 in a primal, pioneering approach, information technology was rewritten in the C programming language by Dennis Ritchie (with the exception of some hardware and I/O routines). The availability of a loftier-level linguistic communication implementation of Unix fabricated its porting to different computer platforms easier.[41]

Due to an before antitrust case forbidding information technology from entering the computer business, AT&T was required to license the operating organisation'due south source code to anyone who asked. Equally a result, Unix grew quickly and became widely adopted by academic institutions and businesses. In 1984, AT&T divested itself of Bell Labs; freed of the legal obligation requiring free licensing, Bell Labs began selling Unix as a proprietary production, where users were not legally allowed to change Unix.

The GNU Projection, started in 1983 past Richard Stallman, had the goal of creating a "complete Unix-uniform software system" composed entirely of gratuitous software. Work began in 1984.[42] Afterwards, in 1985, Stallman started the Complimentary Software Foundation and wrote the GNU Full general Public License (GNU GPL) in 1989. By the early on 1990s, many of the programs required in an operating arrangement (such as libraries, compilers, text editors, a command-line crush, and a windowing system) were completed, although depression-level elements such equally device drivers, daemons, and the kernel, called GNU Hurd, were stalled and incomplete.[43]

MINIX was created by Andrew South. Tanenbaum, a information science professor, and released in 1987 as a minimal Unix-like operating system targeted at students and others who wanted to learn operating arrangement principles. Although the consummate source code of MINIX was freely available, the licensing terms prevented it from beingness complimentary software until the licensing inverse in April 2000.[44]

Although not released until 1992, due to legal complications, development of 386BSD, from which NetBSD, OpenBSD and FreeBSD descended, predated that of Linux.

Linus Torvalds has stated on separate occasions that if the GNU kernel or 386BSD had been available at the time (1991), he probably would non have created Linux.[45] [46]

Creation [edit]

In 1991, while attending the University of Helsinki, Torvalds became curious most operating systems.[47] Frustrated by the licensing of MINIX, which at the fourth dimension limited it to educational use only,[44] he began to work on his own operating system kernel, which eventually became the Linux kernel.

Torvalds began the evolution of the Linux kernel on MINIX and applications written for MINIX were also used on Linux. Subsequently, Linux matured and farther Linux kernel evolution took place on Linux systems.[48] GNU applications also replaced all MINIX components, because it was advantageous to use the freely available lawmaking from the GNU Project with the fledgling operating system; lawmaking licensed nether the GNU GPL can exist reused in other computer programs as long as they also are released nether the same or a compatible license. Torvalds initiated a switch from his original license, which prohibited commercial redistribution, to the GNU GPL.[49] Developers worked to integrate GNU components with the Linux kernel, making a fully functional and gratuitous operating system.[50]

Naming [edit]

5.25-inch floppy disks holding a very early on version of Linux

Linus Torvalds had wanted to call his invention "Freax", a portmanteau of "free", "freak", and "x" (every bit an allusion to Unix). During the start of his piece of work on the system, some of the project's makefiles included the name "Freax" for about half a year. Torvalds had already considered the name "Linux", simply initially dismissed it as besides egotistical.[51]

To facilitate development, the files were uploaded to the FTP server (ftp.funet.fi) of FUNET in September 1991. Ari Lemmke, Torvalds' coworker at the Helsinki University of Technology (HUT), who was one of the volunteer administrators for the FTP server at the time, did non think that "Freax" was a good name, and so he named the project "Linux" on the server without consulting Torvalds.[51] Later, nonetheless, Torvalds consented to "Linux".

Co-ordinate to a newsgroup post by Torvalds,[11] the give-and-take "Linux" should be pronounced ( LIN-uuks) with a brusque 'i' equally in 'print' and 'u' as in 'put'. To further demonstrate how the word "Linux" should exist pronounced, he included an audio guide ( audio speaker icon listen(assistance·info) ) with the kernel source code.[52] However, in this recording, he pronounces 'Linux' ( LEEN-uuks with a short but shut unrounded front vowel.

Commercial and popular uptake [edit]

Ubuntu, a popular Linux distribution

Adoption of Linux in production environments, rather than beingness used only by hobbyists, started to take off offset in the mid-1990s in the supercomputing community, where organizations such every bit NASA started to replace their increasingly expensive machines with clusters of inexpensive commodity computers running Linux. Commercial use began when Dell and IBM, followed by Hewlett-Packard, started offer Linux back up to escape Microsoft's monopoly in the desktop operating organisation marketplace.[53]

Today, Linux systems are used throughout computing, from embedded systems to near all supercomputers,[33] [54] and take secured a place in server installations such as the popular LAMP application stack. Use of Linux distributions in home and enterprise desktops has been growing.[55] [56] [57] [58] [59] [60] [61] Linux distributions have besides get popular in the netbook market, with many devices shipping with customized Linux distributions installed, and Google releasing their ain Chrome OS designed for netbooks.

Linux'due south greatest success in the consumer market is mayhap the mobile device marketplace, with Android being the ascendant operating system on smartphones and very popular on tablets and, more recently, on wearables. Linux gaming is likewise on the rise with Valve showing its back up for Linux and rolling out SteamOS, its own gaming-oriented Linux distribution. Linux distributions have as well gained popularity with diverse local and national governments, such equally the federal regime of Brazil.[62]

Current development [edit]

Greg Kroah-Hartman is the pb maintainer for the Linux kernel and guides its development.[63] William John Sullivan is the executive managing director of the Gratuitous Software Foundation,[64] which in turn supports the GNU components.[65] Finally, individuals and corporations develop 3rd-party non-GNU components. These third-party components comprise a vast body of work and may include both kernel modules and user applications and libraries.

Linux vendors and communities combine and distribute the kernel, GNU components, and non-GNU components, with boosted parcel management software in the class of Linux distributions.

Design [edit]

Many open source developers concord that the Linux kernel was non designed just rather evolved through natural pick. Torvalds considers that although the design of Unix served as a scaffolding, "Linux grew with a lot of mutations – and because the mutations were less than random, they were faster and more directed than alpha-particles in Deoxyribonucleic acid."[66] Eric S. Raymond considers Linux'southward revolutionary aspects to be social, not technical: earlier Linux, circuitous software was designed carefully past pocket-sized groups, simply "Linux evolved in a completely different style. From well-nigh the beginning, it was rather casually hacked on by huge numbers of volunteers analogous but through the Internet. Quality was maintained not by rigid standards or autocracy but by the naively simple strategy of releasing every week and getting feedback from hundreds of users within days, creating a sort of rapid Darwinian selection on the mutations introduced by developers."[67] Bryan Cantrill, an engineer of a competing OS, agrees that "Linux wasn't designed, it evolved", simply considers this to be a limitation, proposing that some features, peculiarly those related to security,[68] cannot be evolved into, "this is non a biological arrangement at the stop of the day, it's a software system."[69] A Linux-based organization is a modular Unix-like operating system, deriving much of its bones design from principles established in Unix during the 1970s and 1980s. Such a system uses a monolithic kernel, the Linux kernel, which handles process control, networking, access to the peripherals, and file systems. Device drivers are either integrated directly with the kernel, or added as modules that are loaded while the system is running.[70]

The GNU userland is a key office of virtually systems based on the Linux kernel, with Android existence the notable exception. The Project's implementation of the C library works every bit a wrapper for the organisation calls of the Linux kernel necessary to the kernel-userspace interface, the toolchain is a broad drove of programming tools vital to Linux development (including the compilers used to build the Linux kernel itself), and the coreutils implement many basic Unix tools. The project also develops Fustigate, a popular CLI shell. The graphical user interface (or GUI) used by most Linux systems is built on elevation of an implementation of the X Window System.[71] More recently, the Linux community seeks to advance to Wayland as the new brandish server protocol in place of X11. Many other open up-source software projects contribute to Linux systems.

Various layers inside Linux, as well showing separation between the userland and kernel space
User manner User applications bash, LibreOffice, GIMP, Blender, 0 A.D., Mozilla Firefox, ...
System components init daemon:
OpenRC, runit, systemd... 		System daemons:
polkitd, smbd, sshd, udevd... 		Window director:
X11, Wayland, SurfaceFlinger (Android) 		Graphics:
Mesa, AMD Catalyst, ... 		Other libraries:
GTK, Qt, EFL, SDL, SFML, FLTK, GNUstep, ...
C standard library fopen, execv, malloc, memcpy, localtime, pthread_create... (upwards to 2000 subroutines)
glibc aims to be fast, musl and uClibc target embedded systems, bionic written for Android, etc. All aim to be POSIX/SUS-compatible.
Kernel way Linux kernel stat, splice, dup, read, open, ioctl, write, mmap, close, leave, etc. (well-nigh 380 system calls)
The Linux kernel Organization Telephone call Interface (SCI), aims to exist POSIX/SUS-compatible[72]
Process scheduling
subsystem 		IPC
subsystem 		Memory management
subsystem 		Virtual files
subsystem 		Network
subsystem
Other components: ALSA, DRI, evdev, klibc, LVM, device mapper, Linux Network Scheduler, Netfilter
Linux Security Modules: SELinux, TOMOYO, AppArmor, Smack
Hardware (CPU, master retentiveness, data storage devices, etc.)

Installed components of a Linux system include the following:[71] [73]

  • A bootloader, for instance GNU Chow, LILO, SYSLINUX, or Gummiboot. This is a plan that loads the Linux kernel into the computer's main memory, by being executed by the estimator when it is turned on and later the firmware initialization is performed.
  • An init program, such as the traditional sysvinit and the newer systemd, OpenRC and Upstart. This is the first procedure launched by the Linux kernel, and is at the root of the process tree: in other terms, all processes are launched through init. It starts processes such as system services and login prompts (whether graphical or in final fashion).
  • Software libraries, which contain code that tin can exist used past running processes. On Linux systems using ELF-format executable files, the dynamic linker that manages the use of dynamic libraries is known every bit ld-linux.so. If the system is gear up up for the user to compile software themselves, header files will also be included to describe the interface of installed libraries. Besides the virtually normally used software library on Linux systems, the GNU C Library (glibc), there are numerous other libraries, such as SDL and Mesa.
    • C standard library is the library needed to run C programs on a computer organization, with the GNU C Library being the standard. For embedded systems, alternatives such every bit the musl, EGLIBC (a glibc fork once used by Debian) and uClibc (which was designed for uClinux) take been developed, although the terminal 2 are no longer maintained. Android uses its ain C library, Bionic.
  • Basic Unix commands, with GNU coreutils being the standard implementation. Alternatives be for embedded systems, such every bit the copyleft BusyBox, and the BSD-licensed Toybox.
  • Widget toolkits are the libraries used to build graphical user interfaces (GUIs) for software applications. Numerous widget toolkits are available, including GTK and Clutter developed by the GNOME project, Qt developed by the Qt Project and led by The Qt Company, and Enlightenment Foundation Libraries (EFL) adult primarily by the Enlightenment team.
  • A packet direction organization, such as dpkg and RPM. Alternatively packages can be compiled from binary or source tarballs.
  • User interface programs such as control shells or windowing environments.

User interface [edit]

The user interface, also known as the shell, is either a command-line interface (CLI), a graphical user interface (GUI), or controls fastened to the associated hardware, which is common for embedded systems. For desktop systems, the default user interface is ordinarily graphical, although the CLI is commonly bachelor through last emulator windows or on a dissever virtual console.

CLI shells are text-based user interfaces, which use text for both input and output. The dominant vanquish used in Linux is the Bourne-Again Shell (fustigate), originally developed for the GNU projection. Virtually low-level Linux components, including various parts of the userland, apply the CLI exclusively. The CLI is particularly suited for automation of repetitive or delayed tasks and provides very simple inter-process communication.

On desktop systems, the most popular user interfaces are the GUI shells, packaged together with extensive desktop environments, such as KDE Plasma, GNOME, MATE, Cinnamon, LXDE, Pantheon and Xfce, though a diverseness of additional user interfaces exist. Most popular user interfaces are based on the X Window System, frequently simply chosen "Ten". Information technology provides network transparency and permits a graphical application running on one organization to be displayed on another where a user may interact with the application; however, certain extensions of the Ten Window System are not capable of working over the network.[74] Several Ten display servers exist, with the reference implementation, X.Org Server, being the most pop.

Server distributions might provide a command-line interface for developers and administrators, but provide a custom interface towards stop-users, designed for the use-case of the system. This custom interface is accessed through a customer that resides on another organisation, not necessarily Linux based.

Several types of window managers exist for X11, including tiling, dynamic, stacking and compositing. Window managers provide means to control the placement and appearance of individual application windows, and interact with the X Window System. Simpler X window managers such as dwm, ratpoison, i3wm, or herbstluftwm provide a minimalist functionality, while more elaborate window managers such as FVWM, Enlightenment or Window Maker provide more features such equally a built-in taskbar and themes, just are still lightweight when compared to desktop environments. Desktop environments include window managers every bit part of their standard installations, such equally Complain (GNOME), KWin (KDE) or Xfwm (xfce), although users may choose to employ a different window director if preferred.

Wayland is a display server protocol intended equally a replacement for the X11 protocol; as of 2014[update], it has not received wider adoption. Unlike X11, Wayland does non need an external window manager and compositing managing director. Therefore, a Wayland compositor takes the role of the display server, window manager and compositing director. Weston is the reference implementation of Wayland, while GNOME'southward Complain and KDE's KWin are existence ported to Wayland as standalone display servers. Enlightenment has already been successfully ported since version xix.[75]

Video input infrastructure [edit]

Linux currently has two modernistic kernel-userspace APIs for handling video input devices: V4L2 API for video streams and radio, and DVB API for digital Goggle box reception.[76]

Due to the complexity and diversity of different devices, and due to the large number of formats and standards handled by those APIs, this infrastructure needs to evolve to better fit other devices. Likewise, a good userspace device library is the central of the success for having userspace applications to be able to work with all formats supported past those devices.[77] [78]

Evolution [edit]

Simplified history of Unix-like operating systems. Linux shares similar architecture and concepts (as role of the POSIX standard) but does not share non-free source code with the original Unix or MINIX.

The primary difference between Linux and many other popular contemporary operating systems is that the Linux kernel and other components are free and open-source software. Linux is not the just such operating system, although information technology is by far the near widely used.[79] Some free and open up-source software licenses are based on the principle of copyleft, a kind of reciprocity: any work derived from a copyleft piece of software must also exist copyleft itself. The most common free software license, the GNU General Public License (GPL), is a form of copyleft, and is used for the Linux kernel and many of the components from the GNU Project.[80]

Linux-based distributions are intended past developers for interoperability with other operating systems and established calculating standards. Linux systems adhere to POSIX,[81] SUS,[82] LSB, ISO, and ANSI standards where possible, although to date merely one Linux distribution has been POSIX.1 certified, Linux-FT.[83] [84]

Free software projects, although developed through collaboration, are often produced independently of each other. The fact that the software licenses explicitly permit redistribution, however, provides a basis for larger-scale projects that collect the software produced by stand up-alone projects and make it available all at in one case in the course of a Linux distribution.

Many Linux distributions manage a remote drove of system software and application software packages available for download and installation through a network connection. This allows users to adapt the operating organisation to their specific needs. Distributions are maintained past individuals, loose-knit teams, volunteer organizations, and commercial entities. A distribution is responsible for the default configuration of the installed Linux kernel, general organization security, and more more often than not integration of the different software packages into a coherent whole. Distributions typically use a parcel managing director such as apt, yum, zypper, pacman or portage to install, remove, and update all of a organization'south software from one central location.[85]

[edit]

A distribution is largely driven by its developer and user communities. Some vendors develop and fund their distributions on a volunteer basis, Debian being a well-known example. Others maintain a community version of their commercial distributions, as Red Hat does with Fedora, and SUSE does with openSUSE.[86] [87]

In many cities and regions, local associations known as Linux User Groups (LUGs) seek to promote their preferred distribution and by extension gratis software. They hold meetings and provide free demonstrations, grooming, technical support, and operating system installation to new users. Many Internet communities likewise provide support to Linux users and developers. Nigh distributions and free software / open-source projects have IRC chatrooms or newsgroups. Online forums are another means for support, with notable examples being LinuxQuestions.org and the various distribution specific support and community forums, such as ones for Ubuntu, Fedora, and Gentoo. Linux distributions host mailing lists; commonly there will be a specific topic such as usage or development for a given list.

In that location are several technology websites with a Linux focus. Impress magazines on Linux ofttimes bundle encompass disks that carry software or even consummate Linux distributions.[88] [89]

Although Linux distributions are generally available without charge, several large corporations sell, back up, and contribute to the development of the components of the arrangement and of gratis software. An analysis of the Linux kernel in 2017 showed that well over 85% of the code developed by programmers who are being paid for their work, leaving nigh 8.ii% to unpaid developers and four.1% unclassified.[90] Some of the major corporations that provide contributions include Intel, Samsung, Google, AMD, Oracle and Facebook.[91] A number of corporations, notably Ruddy Hat, Canonical and SUSE, have congenital a meaning concern around Linux distributions.

The complimentary software licenses, on which the various software packages of a distribution congenital on the Linux kernel are based, explicitly suit and encourage commercialization; the relationship between a Linux distribution as a whole and individual vendors may be seen as symbiotic. One common business concern model of commercial suppliers is charging for support, especially for business users. A number of companies also offer a specialized business version of their distribution, which adds proprietary support packages and tools to administer higher numbers of installations or to simplify authoritative tasks.

Another business organisation model is to give away the software to sell hardware. This used to be the norm in the computer industry, with operating systems such as CP/K, Apple DOS and versions of Mac Bone prior to vii.vi freely copyable (only not modifiable). As computer hardware standardized throughout the 1980s, it became more than difficult for hardware manufacturers to turn a profit from this tactic, as the OS would run on whatever manufacturer's estimator that shared the same architecture.

Programming on Linux [edit]

Most programming languages back up Linux either directly or through tertiary-party community based ports.[92] The original evolution tools used for edifice both Linux applications and operating system programs are institute within the GNU toolchain, which includes the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) and the GNU Build System. Amongst others, GCC provides compilers for Ada, C, C++, Go and Fortran. Many programming languages have a cantankerous-platform reference implementation that supports Linux, for example PHP, Perl, Ruby, Python, Coffee, Go, Rust and Haskell. First released in 2003, the LLVM project provides an alternative cantankerous-platform open up-source compiler for many languages. Proprietary compilers for Linux include the Intel C++ Compiler, Sun Studio, and IBM XL C/C++ Compiler. Basic in the class of Visual Bones is supported in such forms as Gambas, FreeBASIC, and XBasic, and in terms of last programming or QuickBASIC or Turbo BASIC programming in the form of QB64.

A mutual characteristic of Unix-like systems, Linux includes traditional specific-purpose programming languages targeted at scripting, text processing and system configuration and direction in full general. Linux distributions support beat scripts, awk, sed and make. Many programs too have an embedded programming language to back up configuring or programming themselves. For instance, regular expressions are supported in programs like grep and locate, the traditional Unix MTA Sendmail contains its own Turing complete scripting system, and the advanced text editor GNU Emacs is congenital around a full general purpose Lisp interpreter.

Near distributions also include back up for PHP, Perl, Ruby, Python and other dynamic languages. While not as mutual, Linux likewise supports C# (via Mono), Vala, and Scheme. Guile Scheme acts every bit an extension language targeting the GNU system utilities, seeking to make the conventionally small, static, compiled C programs of Unix design speedily and dynamically extensible via an elegant, functional high-level scripting arrangement; many GNU programs can be compiled with optional Guile bindings to this finish. A number of Java Virtual Machines and development kits run on Linux, including the original Sun Microsystems JVM (HotSpot), and IBM's J2SE RE, besides as many open up-source projects similar Kaffe and JikesRVM.

GNOME and KDE are pop desktop environments and provide a framework for developing applications. These projects are based on the GTK and Qt widget toolkits, respectively, which can also be used independently of the larger framework. Both back up a broad variety of languages. There are a number of Integrated development environments available including Anjuta, Lawmaking::Blocks, CodeLite, Eclipse, Geany, ActiveState Komodo, KDevelop, Lazarus, MonoDevelop, NetBeans, and Qt Creator, while the long-established editors Vim, nano and Emacs remain popular.[93]

Hardware back up [edit]

Linux is ubiquitously plant on diverse types of hardware.

The Linux kernel is a widely ported operating organization kernel, available for devices ranging from mobile phones to supercomputers; it runs on a highly diverse range of calculator architectures, including the mitt-held ARM-based iPAQ and the IBM mainframes Arrangement z9 or Arrangement z10.[94] Specialized distributions and kernel forks exist for less mainstream architectures; for example, the ELKS kernel fork can run on Intel 8086 or Intel 80286 16-scrap microprocessors, while the µClinux kernel fork may run on systems without a memory management unit. The kernel also runs on architectures that were only ever intended to utilise a manufacturer-created operating system, such as Macintosh computers[95] [96] (with both PowerPC and Intel processors), PDAs, video game consoles, portable music players, and mobile phones.

There are several industry associations and hardware conferences devoted to maintaining and improving support for diverse hardware under Linux, such equally FreedomHEC. Over fourth dimension, support for different hardware has improved in Linux, resulting in any off-the-shelf purchase having a "practiced adventure" of existence compatible.[97]

In 2014, a new initiative was launched to automatically collect a database of all tested hardware configurations.[98]

Uses [edit]

[edit]

Many quantitative studies of free/open-source software focus on topics including marketplace share and reliability, with numerous studies specifically examining Linux.[99] The Linux market is growing, and the Linux operating system market size is expected to see a growth of 19.2% by 2027, reaching $fifteen.64 billion, compared to $3.89 billion in 2019.[100] Analysts and proponents attribute the relative success of Linux to its security, reliability, depression cost, and freedom from vendor lock-in.[101] [102]

Desktops and laptops
Co-ordinate to web server statistics (that is, based on the numbers recorded from visits to websites by customer devices), as of November 2018[update], the estimated marketplace share of Linux on desktop computers is around 2.1%. In comparison, Microsoft Windows has a market share of effectually 87%, while macOS covers around ix.7%.[27]
Web servers
W3Cook publishes stats that employ the top ane,000,000 Alexa domains,[103] which every bit of May 2015[update] estimate that 96.55% of web servers run Linux, ane.73% run Windows, and 1.72% run FreeBSD.[104]
W3Techs publishes stats that use the top ten,000,000 Alexa domains and the elevation 1,000,000 Tranco domains, updated monthly[105] and as of Nov 2020 judge that Linux is used past 39% of the web servers, versus 21.ix% being used by Microsoft Windows.[106] 40.1% used other types of Unix.[107]
IDC'south Q1 2007 study indicated that Linux held 12.7% of the overall server market at that time;[108] this estimate was based on the number of Linux servers sold by various companies, and did not include server hardware purchased separately that had Linux installed on it afterwards.
Mobile devices
Android, which is based on the Linux kernel, has become the dominant operating organization for smartphones. During the 2d quarter of 2013, 79.3% of smartphones sold worldwide used Android.[109] [ needs update ] Android is also a popular operating system for tablets, being responsible for more sixty% of tablet sales as of 2013.[110] According to web server statistics, every bit of October 2021[update] Android has a market share of about 71%, with iOS holding 28%, and the remaining i% attributed to diverse niche platforms.[111]
Film production
For years Linux has been the platform of choice in the movie industry. The first major picture show produced on Linux servers was 1997'southward Titanic.[112] [113] Since so major studios including DreamWorks Animation, Pixar, Weta Digital, and Industrial Low-cal & Magic accept migrated to Linux.[114] [115] [116] According to the Linux Movies Grouping, more 95% of the servers and desktops at large animation and visual effects companies utilise Linux.[117]
Utilise in government
Linux distributions take too gained popularity with various local and national governments. News of the Russian military machine creating its ain Linux distribution has too surfaced, and has come up to fruition every bit the One thousand.H.ost Project.[118] The Indian land of Kerala has gone to the extent of mandating that all land high schools run Linux on their computers.[119] [120] China uses Linux exclusively as the operating arrangement for its Loongson processor family unit to reach engineering independence.[121] In Espana, some regions accept developed their own Linux distributions, which are widely used in education and official institutions, like gnuLinEx in Extremadura and Guadalinex in Andalusia. French republic and Germany have also taken steps toward the adoption of Linux.[122] Northward Korea's Red Star OS, developed since 2002, is based on a version of Fedora Linux.[123]

Copyright, trademark, and naming [edit]

Linux kernel is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL), version ii. The GPL requires that anyone who distributes software based on source lawmaking nether this license must make the originating source code (and any modifications) available to the recipient under the same terms.[124] Other key components of a typical Linux distribution are also mainly licensed under the GPL, but they may utilise other licenses; many libraries use the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), a more than permissive variant of the GPL, and the X.Org implementation of the 10 Window System uses the MIT License.

Torvalds states that the Linux kernel will not move from version ii of the GPL to version 3.[125] [126] He specifically dislikes some provisions in the new license which prohibit the use of the software in digital rights direction.[127] It would besides be impractical to obtain permission from all the copyright holders, who number in the thousands.[128]

A 2001 study of Red Hat Linux vii.ane found that this distribution independent thirty million source lines of code.[129] Using the Effective Toll Model, the study estimated that this distribution required about eight thousand person-years of evolution time. According to the study, if all this software had been developed by conventional proprietary means, it would have cost about United states$one.57 billion[130] to develop in 2020 in the United States.[129] Almost of the source code (71%) was written in the C programming language, but many other languages were used, including C++, Lisp, assembly linguistic communication, Perl, Python, Fortran, and various trounce scripting languages. Slightly over half of all lines of code were licensed under the GPL. The Linux kernel itself was ii.4 million lines of code, or 8% of the full.[129]

In a later on study, the same assay was performed for Debian version 4.0 (etch, which was released in 2007).[131] This distribution contained close to 283 million source lines of code, and the study estimated that it would have required almost seventy three thousand human being-years and cost U.s.$eight.viii billion[130] (in 2020 dollars) to develop by conventional means.

The name "Linux" is too used for a laundry detergent made past Swiss visitor Rösch.[132]

In the United states of america, the proper name Linux is a trademark registered to Linus Torvalds.[10] Initially, nobody registered it, but on August 15, 1994, William R. Della Croce, Jr. filed for the trademark Linux, and so demanded royalties from Linux distributors. In 1996, Torvalds and some affected organizations sued him to have the trademark assigned to Torvalds, and, in 1997, the example was settled.[133] The licensing of the trademark has since been handled by the Linux Marker Found (LMI). Torvalds has stated that he trademarked the proper name only to forestall someone else from using it. LMI originally charged a nominal sublicensing fee for use of the Linux name as function of trademarks,[134] but later inverse this in favor of offering a free, perpetual worldwide sublicense.[135]

The Free Software Foundation (FSF) prefers GNU/Linux as the proper noun when referring to the operating system as a whole, because it considers Linux distributions to be variants of the GNU operating system initiated in 1983 by Richard Stallman, president of the FSF.[16] [17] They explicitly have no issue over the proper name Android for the Android OS, which is also an operating organisation based on the Linux kernel, as GNU is non a part of it.

A minority of public figures and software projects other than Stallman and the FSF, notably Debian (which had been sponsored by the FSF up to 1996),[136] also use GNU/Linux when referring to the operating organization equally a whole.[137] [138] [139] Most media and common usage, nevertheless, refers to this family unit of operating systems simply as Linux, as exercise many large Linux distributions (for case, SUSE Linux and Red Hat Enterprise Linux). By dissimilarity, Linux distributions containing merely costless software utilise "GNU/Linux" or simply "GNU", such equally Trisquel GNU/Linux, Parabola GNU/Linux-libre, BLAG Linux and GNU, and gNewSense.

As of May 2011[update], almost 8% to thirteen% of a modern Linux distribution is made of GNU components (the range depending on whether GNOME is considered office of GNU), as determined by counting lines of source code making up Ubuntu's "Natty" release; meanwhile, half dozen% is taken past the Linux kernel, increased to ix% when including its direct dependencies.[140]

Encounter also [edit]

  • Comparing of Linux distributions
  • Comparing of open source and closed source
  • Comparison of operating systems
  • Comparison of 10 Window Organization desktop environments
  • Criticism of Linux
  • Linux Documentation Project
  • Linux From Scratch
  • Linux Software Map
  • Listing of Linux distributions
  • List of games released on Linux
  • List of operating systems
  • Loadable kernel module

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ GNU is the primary userland used in nearly all Linux distributions.[ii] [three] [four] The GNU userland contains system daemons, user applications, the GUI, and diverse libraries. GNU Core utilities are an essential office of near distributions. Nigh Linux distributions use the X Window system.[v] Other components of the userland, such as the widget toolkit, vary with the specific distribution, desktop environment, and user configuration.[vi]
  2. ^ BusyBox is an alternative userland used in many embedded Linux distributions. BusyBox replaces nearly GNU Cadre utilities.[7] One notable Desktop distribution using BusyBox is Alpine_Linux[viii]
  3. ^ "Linux" trademark is owned by Linus Torvalds[10] and administered by the Linux Mark Institute.

References [edit]

  1. ^ Linux Online (2008). "Linux Logos and Mascots". Archived from the original on Baronial fifteen, 2010. Retrieved August xi, 2009.
  2. ^ "GNU Userland". Archived from the original on March 8, 2016.
  3. ^ "Unix Fundamentals — Organisation Administration for Cyborgs". Archived from the original on October five, 2016.
  4. ^ "Operating Systems — Introduction to Data and Communication Applied science". Archived from the original on February 21, 2016.
  5. ^ "The 10 Window System". Archived from the original on January 20, 2016.
  6. ^ "PCLinuxOS Magazine - HTML". Archived from the original on May 15, 2013.
  7. ^ "The Busybox about folio". busybox.net.
  8. ^ "The Alpine Linux about folio". alpinelinux.org.
  9. ^ "The Linux Kernel Athenaeum: Oftentimes asked questions". kernel.org. September 2, 2014. Archived from the original on September 5, 2015. Retrieved September 4, 2015.
  10. ^ a b "U.S. Reg No: 1916230". United States Patent and Trademark Office. Archived from the original on June 24, 2013. Retrieved April ane, 2006.
  11. ^ a b "Re: How to pronounce Linux?". Newsgroup: comp.os.linux. April 23, 1992. Usenet: 1992Apr23.123216.22024@klaava.Helsinki.FI. Retrieved January nine, 2007.
  12. ^ Eckert, Jason W. (2012). Linux+ Guide to Linux Certification (3rd ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: Cengage Learning. p. 33. ISBN978-1111541538. Archived from the original on May ix, 2013. Retrieved April xiv, 2013. The shared commonality of the kernel is what defines a system's membership in the Linux family unit; the differing OSS applications that can interact with the common kernel are what differentiate Linux distributions.
  13. ^ "Twenty Years of Linux according to Linus Torvalds". ZDNet. Apr xiii, 2011. Archived from the original on September 19, 2016. Retrieved September 19, 2016.
  14. ^ Linus Bridegroom Torvalds (October v, 1991). "Costless minix-similar kernel sources for 386-AT". Newsgroup: comp.os.minix. Retrieved September 30, 2011.
  15. ^ "What Is Linux: An Overview of the Linux Operating System". Medium. Retrieved December 21, 2019.
  16. ^ a b "GNU/Linux FAQ". Gnu.org. Archived from the original on September 7, 2013. Retrieved September ane, 2013.
  17. ^ a b "Linux and the GNU Arrangement". Gnu.org. Archived from the original on March 19, 2017. Retrieved September 1, 2013.
  18. ^ DistroWatch. "DistroWatch.com: Put the fun dorsum into calculating. Apply Linux, BSD". distrowatch.com. Archived from the original on April two, 2013. Retrieved December 30, 2016.
  19. ^ himanshu, Swapnil. "Best Linux distros of 2016: Something for everyone". CIO. Archived from the original on Dec 31, 2016. Retrieved February one, 2022.
  20. ^ "10 Tiptop Most Popular Linux Distributions of 2016". www.tecmint.com. Archived from the original on December 30, 2016. Retrieved December 30, 2016.
  21. ^ a b "What is Linux?". Opensource.com . Retrieved May 12, 2020.
  22. ^ Barry Levine (Baronial 26, 2013). "Linux' 22th [sic] Birthday Is Commemorated - Subtly - by Creator". Simpler Media Group, Inc. Archived from the original on May xviii, 2015. Retrieved May x, 2015. Originally adult for Intel x86-based PCs, Torvalds' "hobby" has now been released for more hardware platforms than whatsoever other Bone in history.
  23. ^ "Operating System Market Share Worldwide". StatCounter Global Stats.
  24. ^ "NetMarketShare:Mobile/Tablet Operating System Market Share". Archived from the original on October 6, 2014.
  25. ^ McPherson, Amanda (December 13, 2012). "What a Twelvemonth for Linux: Delight Join us in Celebration". Linux Foundation. Archived from the original on Apr 17, 2014. Retrieved April xvi, 2014.
  26. ^ Linux Devices (Nov 28, 2006). "Trolltech rolls "complete" Linux smartphone stack". Archived from the original on May 25, 2012. Retrieved January 12, 2017.
  27. ^ a b "Desktop Operating System Market Share". Netmarketshare.com . Retrieved December 23, 2018.
  28. ^ "os-ww-monthly-201510-201510-bar". Archived from the original on November 23, 2015. Retrieved November 23, 2015.
  29. ^ Steven J. Vaughan-Nichols. "Chromebook shipments jump by 67 percent". ZDNet. Archived from the original on September 29, 2015. Retrieved September 29, 2015.
  30. ^ "Os Market Share and Usage Trends". W3Cook.com. Archived from the original on August 6, 2015.
  31. ^ Vaughan-Nichols, Steven J. (2017). "Linux totally dominates supercomputers". ZDNet (published Nov 14, 2017). Archived from the original on Nov 14, 2017. Retrieved October 25, 2018.
  32. ^ Thibodeau, Patrick (2009). "IBM'south newest mainframe is all Linux". Computerworld (published December 9, 2009). Archived from the original on November 11, 2016. Retrieved February 22, 2009.
  33. ^ a b Lyons, Daniel (March 15, 2005). "Linux rules supercomputers". Forbes. Archived from the original on Feb 24, 2007. Retrieved February 22, 2007.
  34. ^ Eric Dark-brown (March 29, 2019). "Linux continues accelerate in smart Television market". linuxgizmos.com . Retrieved May fifteen, 2020.
  35. ^ "Sony Open Source Lawmaking Distribution Service". Sony Electronics. Archived from the original on Oct 4, 2011. Retrieved October eight, 2011.
  36. ^ "Sharp Liquid Crystal Television Education Manual" (PDF). Sharp Electronics. p. 24. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 11, 2012. Retrieved October eight, 2011.
  37. ^ Steven J. Vaughan-Nichols (January four, 2019). "It's a Linux-powered car world". ZDNet . Retrieved May 15, 2020.
  38. ^ IBM (Oct 2001). "Linux Sentinel (WatchPad)". Archived from the original on June 18, 2015. Retrieved June 18, 2015.
  39. ^ "From Earth to orbit with Linux and SpaceX | ZDNet". www.zdnet.com.
  40. ^ Ritchie, D.M. (October 1984), "The UNIX System: The Evolution of the UNIX Time-sharing Arrangement", AT&T Bell Laboratories Technical Journal, 63 (8): 1577, doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1984.tb00054.x, However, UNIX was built-in in 1969 ...
  41. ^ Meeker, Heather (September 21, 2017). "Open source licensing: What every technologist should know". Opensource.com. Archived from the original on September 24, 2017. Retrieved September 24, 2017.
  42. ^ "About the GNU Projection – Initial Announcement". Gnu.org. June 23, 2008. Archived from the original on March 5, 2009. Retrieved March nine, 2009.
  43. ^ Christopher Tozzi (August 23, 2016). "Open Source History: Why Did Linux Succeed?". Archived from the original on Baronial 17, 2017. Retrieved Baronial 17, 2017.
  44. ^ a b "MINIX is at present available under the BSD license". minix1.woodhull.com. April nine, 2000. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016.
  45. ^ "Linus vs. Tanenbaum debate". Archived from the original on Oct three, 2012. Retrieved Feb 19, 2014.
  46. ^ Linksvayer, Mike (1993). "The Pick of a GNU Generation – An Interview With Linus Torvalds". Meta mag. Archived from the original on February 25, 2009. Retrieved January 20, 2009.
  47. ^ Torvalds, Linus. "What would yous like to see most in minix?". Newsgroup: comp.os.minix. Usenet: 1991Aug25.205708.9541@klaava.Helsinki.FI. Retrieved September 9, 2006.
  48. ^ Linus Torvalds (October 14, 1992). "Craven and egg: How was the first linux gcc binary created??". Newsgroup: comp.os.minix. Usenet: 1992Oct12.100843.26287@klaava.Helsinki.FI. Retrieved Baronial 17, 2013.
  49. ^ Torvalds, Linus (Jan 5, 1992). "Release notes for Linux v0.12". Linux Kernel Archives. Archived from the original on August 19, 2007. Retrieved July 23, 2007. The Linux copyright volition change: I've had a couple of requests to get in compatible with the GNU copyleft, removing the "you lot may not distribute it for money" condition. I concord. I advise that the copyright be changed so that it confirms to GNU ─ pending blessing of the persons who have helped write code. I assume this is going to exist no problem for anybody: If you have grievances ("I wrote that code assuming the copyright would stay the aforementioned") mail me. Otherwise, The GNU copyleft takes event since the first of February. If you do not know the gist of the GNU copyright ─ read it.
  50. ^ "Overview of the GNU System". Gnu.org. Archived from the original on February 28, 2009. Retrieved March 9, 2009.
  51. ^ a b Torvalds, Linus and Diamond, David, Just for Fun: The Story of an Adventitious Revolutionary, 2001, ISBN 0-06-662072-four
  52. ^ Torvalds, Linus (March 1994). "Alphabetize of /pub/linux/kernel/SillySounds". Archived from the original on Oct eight, 2009. Retrieved August iii, 2009.
  53. ^ Garfinkel, Simson; Spafford, Factor; Schwartz, Alan (2003). Practical UNIX and Net Security. O'Reilly. p. 21.
  54. ^ Santhanam, Anand; Vishal Kulkarni (March 1, 2002). "Linux system evolution on an embedded device". DeveloperWorks. IBM. Archived from the original on March 29, 2007. Retrieved July 26, 2007.
  55. ^ Galli, Peter (August 8, 2007). "Vista Aiding Linux Desktop, Strategist Says". eWEEK. Ziff Davis Enterprise Inc. Archived from the original on July nine, 2009. Retrieved November nineteen, 2007.
  56. ^ Paul, Ryan (September 3, 2007). "Linux market share set up to surpass Win 98, OS X still alee of Vista". Ars Technica. Ars Technica, LLC. Archived from the original on November 16, 2007. Retrieved November nineteen, 2007.
  57. ^ Beer, Stan (January 23, 2007). "Vista to play second fiddle to XP until 2009: Gartner". iTWire. iTWire. Archived from the original on December 3, 2008. Retrieved November xix, 2007.
  58. ^ "Operating System Marketshare for Year 2007". Market Share. Cyberspace Applications. Nov 19, 2007. Archived from the original on June 24, 2013. Retrieved November 19, 2007.
  59. ^ "Vista slowly continues its growth; Linux more than aggressive than Mac OS during the summer". XiTiMonitor. AT Internet/XiTi.com. September 24, 2007. Archived from the original on December 14, 2007. Retrieved November 19, 2007.
  60. ^ "Global Web Stats". W3Counter. Awio Spider web Services LLC. November ten, 2007. Archived from the original on June 28, 2012. Retrieved November 19, 2007.
  61. ^ "June 2004 Zeitgeist". Google Press Center. Google Inc. August 12, 2004. Archived from the original on July 11, 2011. Retrieved November 19, 2007.
  62. ^ McMillan, Robert (Oct 10, 2003). "IBM, Brazilian authorities launch Linux effort". www.infoworld.com. IDG News Service. Archived from the original on March 15, 2015. Retrieved February 16, 2015.
  63. ^ "Most Us - The Linux Foundation". Retrieved Oct ane, 2018.
  64. ^ "The Free Software Foundation Management". Archived from the original on November 11, 2011. Retrieved November 10, 2011.
  65. ^ "Free software is a matter of liberty, not cost — Free Software Foundation — working together for complimentary software". Fsf.org. Archived from the original on July xiv, 2012. Retrieved July 12, 2012.
  66. ^ Electronic mail correspondence on the Linux Kernel development mailing list Linus Torvalds (Nov 30, 2001). "Re: Coding style, a non-issue". kernel.org.
  67. ^ Raymond, Eric S. (2001). O'Reilly, Tim (ed.). The Cathedral and the Bazaar: Musings on Linux and Open Source by an Accidental Revolutionary (Second ed.). O'Reilly & Assembly. p. sixteen. ISBN0-596-00108-eight.
  68. ^ "Yous accept to blueprint it you lot cannot asymptotically reach Security." Cantrill 2017
  69. ^ The Cantrill Strikes Dorsum | BSD At present 117. Jupiter Broadcasting. Nov 26, 2015. Archived from the original on December 14, 2020. Retrieved September 7, 2021 – via YouTube.
  70. ^ "Why is Linux chosen a monolithic kernel?". stackoverflow.com. 2009. Archived from the original on October 17, 2013. Retrieved October sixteen, 2013.
  71. ^ a b "Anatomy of a Linux Arrangement" (PDF). O'Reilly. July 23–26, 2001. Retrieved October x, 2018.
  72. ^ "Admin Guide README". git.kernel.org.
  73. ^ K. Tim Jones (May 31, 2006). "Within the Linux boot process". IBM Developer Works. Archived from the original on October 17, 2013. Retrieved October 16, 2013.
  74. ^ Jake Border (June eight, 2013). "The Wayland Situation: Facts About X vs. Wayland (Phoronix)". LWN.internet. Archived from the original on October 22, 2013. Retrieved October 11, 2013.
  75. ^ Diener, Derrik (December 6, 2016). "What Is Wayland and What Does It Ways for Linux Users". www.maketecheasier.com/ . Retrieved February 14, 2021.
  76. ^ "Linux TV: Television with Linux". linuxtv.org. Archived from the original on November 6, 2013. Retrieved October 16, 2013.
  77. ^ Jonathan Corbet (October eleven, 2006). "The Video4Linux2 API: an introduction". LWN.net. Archived from the original on October 7, 2013. Retrieved October 16, 2013.
  78. ^ "Part I. Video for Linux Two API Specification". Affiliate seven. Changes. linuxtv.org. Archived from the original on Oct 17, 2013. Retrieved October sixteen, 2013.
  79. ^ Operating Organisation Marketplace Share (November 2009). "Operating System Market place Share". Archived from the original on Jan 25, 2010. Retrieved December 11, 2009.
  80. ^ "gnu.org". www.gnu.org . Retrieved May 12, 2020.
  81. ^ "POSIX.1 (FIPS 151-ii) Certification". Archived from the original on February 26, 2012.
  82. ^ "How source code compatible is Debian with other Unix systems?". Debian FAQ. the Debian project. Archived from the original on October 16, 2011.
  83. ^ Eissfeldt, Heiko (August ane, 1996). "Certifying Linux". Linux Journal. Archived from the original on April 4, 2016.
  84. ^ "The Debian GNU/Linux FAQ – Compatibility issues". Archived from the original on October ten, 2011. Retrieved September 17, 2011.
  85. ^
  86. ^ "Become Fedora". getfedora.org . Retrieved February 24, 2020.
  87. ^ blueprint, Cynthia Sanchez: front-end and UI, Zvezdana Marjanovic: graphic. "The makers' selection for sysadmins, developers and desktop users". openSUSE . Retrieved Feb 24, 2020.
  88. ^ Linux Format. "Linux Format DVD contents". Archived from the original on August 8, 2008. Retrieved January 17, 2008.
  89. ^ linux-magazine.com. "Current Result". Archived from the original on Jan 10, 2008. Retrieved Jan 17, 2008.
  90. ^ "State of Linux Kernel Development 2017". Linux Foundation . Retrieved Nov 14, 2021.
  91. ^ "Land of Linux Kernel Development 2017". Linux Foundation . Retrieved November xiv, 2021.
  92. ^ "gfortran — the GNU Fortran compiler, part of GCC". GNU GCC . Retrieved May 3, 2020.
  93. ^ Brockmeier, Joe. "A survey of Linux Spider web development tools". Archived from the original on October 19, 2006. Retrieved December 16, 2006.
  94. ^ Advani, Prakash (February eight, 2004). "If I could re-write Linux". freeos.com. Archived from the original on Jan 23, 2007. Retrieved January 23, 2007.
  95. ^ Das, Ankush (Jan 21, 2021). "Finally! Linux Runs Gracefully On Apple M1 Chip". It's FOSS News . Retrieved Nov 13, 2021.
  96. ^ Jimenez, Jorge (October eight, 2021). "Developers finally get Linux running on an Apple M1-powered Mac". PC Gamer . Retrieved Nov 13, 2021.
  97. ^ Bruce Byfield (August 14, 2007). "Is my hardware Linux-compatible? Find out here". Linux.com. Archived from the original on September 5, 2015. Retrieved September 4, 2015.
  98. ^ "Linux Hardware". Linux Hardware Projection. Retrieved June 26, 2020.
  99. ^ Wheeler, David A. "Why Open up Source Software/Free Software (OSS/FS)? Expect at the Numbers!". Archived from the original on April five, 2006. Retrieved April one, 2006.
  100. ^ "Linux Operating System Market Size, Share and Forecast [2020-2027]". www.fortunebusinessinsights.com . Retrieved November 12, 2021.
  101. ^ "The rise and rise of Linux". Estimator Assembly International. October 10, 2005. Archived from the original on Feb 17, 2007.
  102. ^ Jeffrey S. Smith. "Why customers are flocking to Linux". IBM. Archived from the original on June iii, 2008.
  103. ^ "W3Cook FAQ". W3Cook.com. Archived from the original on June 27, 2015. Retrieved June 30, 2015.
  104. ^ "Bone Market Share and Usage Trends". W3Cook.com. Archived from the original on August 6, 2015. Retrieved June 30, 2015.
  105. ^ "Technologies Overview - methodology information". W3Techs.com . Retrieved June 30, 2015.
  106. ^ "Linux vs. Windows usage statistics, November 2021". w3techs.com . Retrieved Nov fourteen, 2021.
  107. ^ "Usage Statistics and Market Share of Unix for Websites, November 2021". w3techs.com . Retrieved November 14, 2021.
  108. ^ "─ IDC Q1 2007 report". Linux-watch.com. May 29, 2007. Archived from the original on January 17, 2010. Retrieved March 9, 2009.
  109. ^ "Android Nears 80% Market Share In Global Smartphone Shipments, As iOS And BlackBerry Share Slides, Per IDC". Archived from the original on July 5, 2017.
  110. ^ Egham (March 3, 2014). "Gartner Says Worldwide Tablet Sales Grew 68 Percent in 2013, With Android Capturing 62 Percent of the Marketplace". Archived from the original on April 17, 2014. Retrieved June xiii, 2014.
  111. ^ "Mobile/Tablet Operating Organization Marketplace Share". Netmarketshare.com. Archived from the original on June 28, 2021. Retrieved October 14, 2021.
  112. ^ Strauss, Daryll. "Linux Helps Bring Titanic to Life". Archived from the original on January 12, 2012. Retrieved July 28, 2011.
  113. ^ Rowe, Robin. "Linux and Star Expedition". Archived from the original on July 12, 2011. Retrieved July 28, 2011.
  114. ^ "Industry of Change: Linux Storms Hollywood". Archived from the original on April eleven, 2009. Retrieved March 11, 2009.
  115. ^ "Tux with Shades, Linux in Hollywood". Retrieved March xi, 2009.
  116. ^ "Weta Digital – Jobs". Archived from the original on December xxx, 2010. Retrieved Nov 17, 2010.
  117. ^ "LinuxMovies.org – Advancing Linux Motion Picture Technology". Archived from the original on March 1, 2012. Retrieved March sixteen, 2012.
  118. ^ "LV: Minister: "Open standards improve efficiency and transparency"". Archived from the original on August 9, 2011. Retrieved February 21, 2009.
  119. ^ "Linux Spreads its Wings in Republic of india". Archived from the original on July 28, 2011. Retrieved February 21, 2009.
  120. ^ "Kerala shuts windows, schools to use merely Linux". March 4, 2008. Archived from the original on May 15, 2011. Retrieved June 22, 2009.
  121. ^ "China's Microprocessor Dilemma". Microprocessor Report. Archived from the original on September 18, 2009. Retrieved April fifteen, 2009.
  122. ^ Krane, Jim (Nov 30, 2001). "Some countries are choosing Linux systems over Microsoft". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. Archived from the original on March fifteen, 2012. Retrieved February 21, 2009.
  123. ^ "Democratic people's republic of korea's 'paranoid' computer operating system revealed". The Guardian. December 27, 2015. Archived from the original on December 31, 2015. Retrieved December 31, 2015.
  124. ^ "GNU Full general Public License, version 2". GNU Project. June ii, 1991. Archived from the original on December vii, 2013. Retrieved December v, 2013.
  125. ^ Torvalds, Linus (Jan 26, 2006). "Re: GPL V3 and Linux ─ Dead Copyright Holders". Linux Kernel Mailing Listing. Archived from the original on July 9, 2014.
  126. ^ Torvalds, Linus (September 25, 2006). "Re: GPLv3 Position Statement". Linux Kernel Mailing Listing. Archived from the original on April 22, 2014.
  127. ^ Brett Smith (July 29, 2013). "Neutralizing Laws That Prohibit Free Software — But Not Forbidding DRM". A Quick Guide to GPLv3. GNU Project. Archived from the original on Dec 1, 2013. Retrieved December v, 2013.
  128. ^ "Keeping an Heart on the Penguin". Linux-lookout man.com. Feb 7, 2006. Archived from the original on January 3, 2013. Retrieved November 9, 2010.
  129. ^ a b c Wheeler, David A (July 29, 2002). "More than Than a Gigabuck: Estimating GNU/Linux's Size". Archived from the original on April 21, 2006. Retrieved May xi, 2006.
  130. ^ a b Johnston, Louis; Williamson, Samuel H. (2022). "What Was the U.S. GDP Then?". MeasuringWorth . Retrieved February 12, 2022. The states Gdp deflator figures follow the Measuring Worth series.
  131. ^ Amor, Juan José; et al. (June 17, 2007). "Measuring Etch: the size of Debian 4.0". Archived from the original on July 28, 2014. Retrieved September 16, 2007.
  132. ^ "In that location Is a Linux Detergent Out At that place and Information technology'southward Trademarked". Linux.com. June 19, 2015. Archived from the original on June 24, 2015. Retrieved January 31, 2016.
  133. ^ "Linux Timeline". Linux Journal. May 31, 2006. Archived from the original on February 3, 2013.
  134. ^ Neil McAllister (September 5, 2005). "Linus gets tough on Linux trademark". InfoWorld. Archived from the original on April 12, 2008. Retrieved February 24, 2008.
  135. ^ "Linux Mark Institute". Archived from the original on February thirteen, 2008. Retrieved February 24, 2008. LMI has restructured its sublicensing program. Our new sublicense agreement is: Costless – approved sublicense holders pay no fees; Perpetual – sublicense terminates only in breach of the agreement or when your organization ceases to use its marker; Worldwide – ane sublicense covers your use of the marking anywhere in the world
  136. ^ Richard Stallman (April 28, 1996). "The FSF is no longer sponsoring Debian". tech-insider.org. Archived from the original on February 21, 2014. Retrieved February 8, 2014.
  137. ^ "TiVo ─ GNU/Linux Source Lawmaking". Archived from the original on May 19, 2007. Retrieved Dec 12, 2006.
  138. ^ "About Debian". debian.org. Dec 8, 2013. Archived from the original on January 23, 2014. Retrieved January 30, 2014.
  139. ^ Andrew D. Balsa; et al. (October 17, 2009). "The linux-kernel mailing list FAQ". vger.kernel.org. Archived from the original on October one, 2012. Retrieved June 13, 2013. ...we take tried to use the word "Linux" or the expression "Linux kernel" to designate the kernel, and GNU/Linux to designate the entire trunk of GNU/GPL'ed Bone software,... ...many people forget that the linux kernel mailing list is a forum for discussion of kernel-related matters, not GNU/Linux in general...
  140. ^ Côrte-Real, Pedro (May 31, 2011). "How much GNU is there in GNU/Linux?". Separate Perspective. Archived from the original on Feb vii, 2014. Retrieved Jan 28, 2014. (self-published data)

External links [edit]

  • Linux at Curlie
  • Graphical map of Linux Internals
  • Linux kernel website and archives
  • The History of Linux in GIT Repository Format 1992–2010

DOWNLOAD HERE

Posted by: melindayedis1975.blogspot.com

Post a Comment

Previous Post Next Post